Abstract and Works Cited

 Abstract

To most people, racism in America is undeniable. Even then, however, there is a debate as to the nature and extent of this racism, especially in regard to Black Americans. This paper explores racism and the racial gaps of the American higher education systems, discrimination against Black Americans, and hate crimes against African America and the results thereof, as well as the progress made against these things and further efforts that can be taken to solve the issues of inequality in higher education.

Works Cited

Anderson, Nick. “College Board Is Scrapping SAT's Optional Essay and Subject Tests.” The Washington Post, WP Company, 20 Jan. 2021, www.washingtonpost.com/local/education/sat-ending-essay-subject-tests/2021/01/19/ac82cdd8-574a-11eb-a817-e5e7f8a406d6_story.html. Accessed 11 March 2021.

Ashkenas, Jeremy, et al. “Even With Affirmative Action, Blacks and Hispanics Are More Underrepresented at Top Colleges Than 35 Years Ago.” The New York Times, The New York Times, 24 Aug. 2017, www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/08/24/us/affirmative-action.html. Accessed 27 February 2021.

Baker, Dominique J; Britton, Tolani. “Hate Crimes and Black College Student Enrollment.” Center for Education Policy Analysis, 6 Jan. 2021, cepa.stanford.edu/content/hate-crimes-and-black-college-student-enrollment. Accessed 5 February 2021

Cooper, Melinda. Family Values: Between Neoliberalism and the New Social Conservatism. Zone Books, 2017. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1qft0n6. Accessed 18 February 2021.

Davis, F. James. 2001. Who is Black? One Nation’s Definition. University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press.

DiUlio, Nick. “Promises Made, Promises Kept.” Rutgers Magazine, Rutgers University, 2017, ucmweb.rutgers.edu/magazine/1419archive/features/promises-made-promises-kept.html. Accessed 15 April 2021.

Fessenden, Ford, and Josh Keller. “How Minorities Have Fared in States With Affirmative Action Bans.” The New York Times, The New York Times, 24 June 2013, archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/interactive/2013/06/24/us/affirmative-action-bans.html.

Fussell, Sidney. “The Problem With the SAT's Idea of Objectivity.” The Atlantic, The Atlantic, 18 May 2019, web.archive.org/web/20191112181753/www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2019/05/college-board-sat-adversity-score/589681/. Accessed 11 March 2021.

“Interviews - Nicholas Lemann | Secrets of The SAT | FRONTLINE.” PBS, Public Broadcasting Service, www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/sats/interviews/lemann.html. Accessed 11 March 2021.

Jenness, Valerie. "Hate crime". Encyclopedia Britannica, 10 Apr. 2018, https://www.britannica.com/topic/hate-crime. Accessed 12 April 2021.

National Center for Education Statistics. “Digest of Education Statistics, 2019.” National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) Home Page, a Part of the U.S. Department of Education, nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d19/tables/dt19_105.30.asp. Accessed 31 March 2021.

National Institute of Justice, "Overview of Hate Crime," December 21, 2010, nij.ojp.gov: https://nij.ojp.gov/topics/articles/overview-hate-crime. Accessed 12 April 2021

Pojman, Louis P. “The Case Against Affirmative Action.” International Journal of Applied Philosophy, vol. 12, 1998, pp. 97–115. https://www.csus.edu/indiv/g/gaskilld/business_computer_ethics/the%20case%20against%20affirmative%20action.htm. Accessed 15 April 2021.

Roberts, Dorothy. 2011. Fatal Invention: How Science, Politics, and Big Business Re-Create Race. New York: New Press, (Pages 3-25).

Rutgers Future Scholars, Rutgers University, futurescholars.rutgers.edu/app/content/home.jsp. Accessed 15 April 2021.

Sacks, David, and Peter Thiel. “The Case Against Affirmative Action.” Stanford Magazine, Stanford University, 1996, stanfordmag.org/contents/the-case-against-affirmative-action. Accessed 15 April 2021.

Stevens, Courtney, et al. “Racial/Ethnic Disparities in US College Students’ Experience: Discrimination as an Impediment to Academic Performance.” Journal of American College Health, vol. 66, no. 7, Jan. 2018, pp. 665–673. EBSCOhost, login.proxy.libraries.rutgers.edu/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=EJ1200388&site=ehost-live. Accessed 5 February 2021.

United States Census Bureau. “More Than 76 Million Students Enrolled in U.S. Schools.” The United States Census Bureau, 4 June 2019, www.census.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2018/school-enrollment.html#:~:text=Of%20just%20the%20current%20undergraduate,black%2C%20and%2011.2%20percent%20Asian. Accessed 31 March 2021.

United States Census Bureau. “Population Estimates Continue to Show the Nation's Growth Is Slowing.” The United States Census Bureau (USCB), 2 Jan. 2020, www.census.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2019/popest-nation.html. Accessed 31 March 2021.

United States Census Bureau. “School Enrollment in the United States: October 2017 - Detailed Tables.” 

United States Census Bureau, 11 Dec. 2018, www.census.gov/data/tables/2017/demo/school-   enrollment/2017-cps.html. Accessed 31 March 2021.